UNCO_LE@RN Further Research in Adult Learning Theory

What is contemporary adult learning theory? How did it evolve from foundational paradigms? Many modern adult learning theories incorporate theories from different ontologies and epistemologies.

Adult Learning Theorists and Resources

Contemporary adult learning theories and their foundational paradigms:

Theory (Model) of adult learning principles

  • Knowles (1984, 1998), humanist learning theory – concept of andragogy (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998) [initial works were 1984] and a model for practice [p. 162, (Swanson & Holton, 2001)].
  • Maslow (1943), “father of humanistic psychology” – concept of self-actualization, hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943, pp. 370-396))
  • Rogers (1969), humanist – actualizing tendency, strive for “positive regard” and importance of experiential (significant) learning to fulfill individual need (Rogers, 1969)
  • Dewey (1916), constructivist – pragmatic approach to applied experience and meaning in the learning process and support of education for a democratic society (Dewey, 1916)
  • Lindeman (1926), constructivist – pragmatic approach to applied experience and meaning in the learning process and support to society (Lindeman, 1926)

Theory of experiential learning

  • Kolb (1984), cognitivist and humanist (people have natural capacity to learn) – experiential learning model (cycle) and concept of learning styles (Kolb, 1984)
  • Piaget (1929, 1969), constructivist – concept of “genetic epistemology”, cognitive structures are patterns of mental and physical action that correspond to stages of development, cognitive structures change and adapt as one assimilates an experience and interprets its meaning in terms of existing cognitive structure (adds to existing structures) or accommodates to change that structure as necessary to make sense of it (Piaget, 1929; Piaget, 1970)
  • Dewey (1916), constructivist – pragmatic approach to applied experience and meaning in the learning process and support of education for a democratic society (Dewey, 1916)
  • Lewin (1935, 1951), cognitivist – experiential learning and group dynamics (democracy is best); “field theory”, which considers the totality of an individual’s situation to the learning (rooted gestalt psychological theory);  “action research spiral”, especially social action in which one plans, then takes an action, reflects and evaluates outcome, amends the plan and takes a second action ... (Lewin, 1935; Lewin, 1951)
  • Bruner (1960), constructivist – children’s perceptions and learning do have developmental stages (similar to Piaget), but they are influenced by social and environmental circumstances, students should be allowed to work through the process of coming to new meanings and teaching should take that into consideration, referred to as “spiral learning” (Bruner, 1960)

Theory of incidental learning

Some parallels to adult learning principles and experiential learning, but informal manner of learning  [p. 169, (Swanson & Holton, 2001)]. Knowles introduced the term “informal learning.”

Theory of situated learning

  • Watkins & Marsick (1992, 1999) and Cseh (1999), constructivist – informal learning is in the hands of the learner, such as self-directed learning, mentoring, coaching, trial and error, … and incidental learning can occur as a by-product/ unconscious learning and become a means of embedding wrong ideas and assumptions (tacit knowledge) (Cseh, Watkins, & Marsick, 1999; Watkins & Marsick, 1992, pp. 287-300)
  • Lave (1991), constructivist and social – learning in context, “communities of practice” (Lave & Wenger, 1991)
  • Bandura (1977), social learning – learning behavior modeled by someone with attributes that one aspires to attain
  • Skinner (1953), behaviorist – “operant conditioning”, reward and punishment (Skinner, 1953)
  • Pavlov – behaviorist – “classic conditioning”
  • Vygostsky (1962), social learning – interactive (situated) learning and cognitive development that are critically dependent on social interaction, “zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1962)
  • Argyris (1982), constructivist – theories of action, double-loop learning, organizational learning (Argyris & Schon, 1978; Argyris & Schon, 1996)
  • Schon (1987), constructivist – “generative metaphor” (figurative descriptors to shape problems), reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, “theory in use”, “double-loop learning” (Argyris & Schon, 1978; Argyris & Schon, 1996; Schon, 1983)
  • Bruner (1960), constructivist – children’s perceptions and learning do have developmental stages (similar to Piaget), but they are influenced by social and environmental circumstances, students should be allowed to work through the process of coming to new meanings and teaching should take that into consideration, referred to as “spiral learning” (Bruner, 1960)

Transformational learning

  • Mezirow (1991), social constructivist – “transformational learning”, a critical reflection of assumptions  caused by a disorienting dilemma that results in reassessment (new meanings) and life-altering changes. (Mezirow, 1991; Mezirow & Associates, 2000)
  • Argyris (1982), constructivist – theories of action, double-loop learning, organizational learning (Argyris & Schon, 1978; Argyris & Schon, 1996)
  • Schon (1987), constructivist – “generative metaphor” (figurative descriptors to shape problems), reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, “theory in use”, “double-loop learning” (Argyris & Schon, 1978; Argyris & Schon, 1996; Schon, 1983)

Theory of multiple intelligences

  • Gardner (1983, 1993), humanistic – people have different capacities to learn dependent on proclivity of natural talents, IQ tests are not a valid means of measuring all forms of intelligence (only cognitive)

Gardner's theory is a paradigm shift from the basic concepts of:

  • Piaget (1929, 1969) constructivist – concept of “genetic epistemology”, cognitive structures are patterns of mental and physical action that correspond to stages of development, cognitive structures change and adapt as one assimilates an experience and interprets its meaning in terms of existing cognitive structure (adds to existing structures) or accommodates to change that structure as necessary to make sense of it (Piaget, 1929; Piaget, 1970)

Other learning design theories

  • Bloom’s (1994) taxonomy of cognitive hierarchies in which he describes increasing complexity in learning through six levels of activity that represent the problem solving required in case-based learning (Bloom, 1994).
  • Gagne’s (1992) principles of instructional design propose that nine sequential events of instruction need to take place for optimal learning. The instructional system should: (1) gain attention (2) inform learners of objectives, (3) stimulate recall prior learning, (4) present stimulus, (5) provide learning guidance, (6) elicit performance, (7) provide feedback, (8) assess performance, (9) enhance retention and transfer (Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1992).
  • Spiro and Jehng (1990) propose the theory of cognitive flexibility. This theory has relevance to case-based learning, because it proposes that the learning process is not linear, but often requires a creative recombination of knowledge (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1992; Spiro & Jehng, 1990).
  • Sweller (1988) introduced the theory of cognitive load for instructional design. This theory suggests that prior knowledge determines what the working memory can absorb at one time. This theory suggests that instructional design can add unneeded complexity to learning (Sweller, 1988, pp. 257-285).