Date Created

5-2026

Document Type

Dissertation

Degree Name

Doctor of Philosophy

Department

College of Education and Behavioral Sciences, School Psychology, School Psychology Student Work

First Advisor

Hulac, David M.

First Committee Member

Hynes, Keeley

Second Committee Member

Gershwin, Tracy

Third Committee Member

Romero, Aldo

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine how school-based law enforcement officer (LEO) staffing ratios and school-based mental health provider (MHP) staffing ratios were associated with disciplinary disproportionality for students of color, and whether MHP staffing moderated the relationship between LEO staffing and disproportionality using a comprehensive national dataset. The following research questions guided this study:

Q1 Does disciplinary disproportionality exist in exclusionary practices within the current educational system?

Q2 How are ratios of school police officers related to disciplinary disproportionality?

Q3 How are ratios of school-based MHPs related to disciplinary disproportionality?

Q4 Does the ratio of school-based MHPs moderate the relationship between the ratio of school police officers and disciplinary disproportionality?

Drawing on data from over 90,000 local education agencies (LEAs) in the 2021–2022 Civil Rights Data Collection (U.S. Department of Education, 2025), the analysis examined the relationships between staffing ratios of school-based law enforcement officers (LEOs) and mental health providers (MHPs) and disciplinary risk ratios for students of color. While prior research has explored these roles separately, this study was the first known national analysis to evaluate their independent and interactive effects using a moderation framework.

Exploratory analyses used binned staffing variables in SPSS. Due to assumption violations, confirmatory analyses employed robust regression and moderation in Python, using log-transformed and centered staffing ratios. Disciplinary disproportionality was measured using risk ratios comparing exclusionary discipline for students of color versus their White peers.

Findings revealed that higher LEO staffing ratios were associated with significantly increased disciplinary disproportionality. The MHP ratios were also positively associated with disproportionality, though with smaller effect sizes. Notably, a significant interaction was identified: the presence of MHPs moderated the relationship between LEO presence and risk ratios, suggesting the combination of staffing models might compound inequities when roles are poorly defined or misaligned.

These findings have critical implications for school discipline policy and practice. The presence of police in schools was correlated with increased exclusionary responses, a relationship that might be stronger in the absence of integrated support systems. Simultaneously, the presence of MHPs did not guarantee equitable outcomes, underscoring the need for more precise guidance on their role in disciplinary frameworks. This study called for systemic reforms that redefine the function of both LEOs and MHPs in schools, emphasizing preventive, student-centered approaches grounded in cultural responsiveness and institutional accountability.

Abstract Format

html

Language

English

Extent

121 pages

Rights Statement

Copyright is held by the author.

Digital Origin

Born digital

Download

Share

COinS